Dextran sulfate-containing thermosensitive hydrogel improves tendon healing by modulating macrophage polarization.

Direct tendon repair is a prevailing management strategy for tendon rupture. However, healing is impeded by the relatively low metabolic activity of tendon cells and chronic inflammation following the initial injury and subsequent surgery. To address this challenge, we developed a thermosensitive Pluronic-dextran sulfate (PDS) hydrogel to mitigate chronic inflammation by modulating macrophage phenotypes and facilitating extracellular matrix deposition through the sulfated residue of the hydrogel. Rheometer test results revealed that the PDS hydrogel exhibited a phase transition at approximately 13 °C, facilitating rapid solidification upon contact with live tissue during intraoperative use. Additionally, the material complied with ISO-10993 standards, demonstrating non-cytotoxic properties. In vitro, the PDS hydrogel significantly increased tenocyte proliferation and migration by 33 % and 408 %, respectively, compared to those of the controls (p < 0.05). Gene expression analysis revealed a 4.1-fold increase (p < 0.05) in anti-inflammatory M2 marker expression (EGR-2) with a significant reduction (75 %) in IL-1β levels (p < 0.05). In vivo studies demonstrated the biocompatibility of the material, as evidenced by the absence of liver and kidney toxicity. In vivo rabbit Achilles tendon repair models showed that the PDS group exhibited a significantly higher tendon-breaking force (179.8 ± 50.3 N) than the control group (52.6 ± 20.0 N) (p < 0.05). Data from mechanical tests of the repaired tendons, as well as reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis, further validated that the PDS hydrogel promoted tendon healing and that it has potential for modulating macrophage polarization.