The many virtues of staphylococcal protein A: A journey from N to C terminus.

This review outlines the historical development and versatile applications of one of the most well-studied bacterial proteins, namely the immunoglobulin (Ig)-binding staphylococcal protein A (SpA) of Staphylococcus aureus. Each segment of the SpA operon, from the 5' promoter region and signal peptide to the 3' cell wall anchoring region, has been exploited for various innovative applications in areas such as immunology and biotechnology. We provide an overview of selected applications and concepts that have had a significant impact on life science research, and some that have also led to significant commercial implications. In the 1980s, the SpA promoter and signal sequence were utilized in Escherichia coli for recombinant production of various proteins, yielding product secretion to the culture medium and thereby simplifying product recovery. The five homologous Ig-binding domains of SpA gained tremendous interest in the late 1980s, largely due to the rise of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) for therapeutic use, prompting a growing demand for effective affinity ligands to facilitate their purification. Over the years, these Ig-binding domains have been extensively investigated and re-engineered to bind proteins other than antibodies, leading in the mid-1990s to the development of the affibody affinity protein technology. Today, affibody molecules are being investigated in late-stage clinical trials as potential protein therapeutics for various indications. Finally, the cell wall anchoring regions of SpA inspired the development of a surface display system for Staphylococcus carnosus, which has emerged as a technology platform in combinatorial protein engineering for work with large peptide, antibody and affibody libraries.