Probabilistic risk assessment of heavy metal (loid)s in lotus root from main production regions of China to propose daily intake limits.

This study investigated heavy metal(loid) sources and health risks of 346 lotus root (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) samples from eight key producing areas in China. Results showed arsenic (As) was the most prevalent contaminant, with a 100 % detection rate and 2.89 % of samples exceeding national food safety limits. Fujian province exhibited the highest pollution levels, with exceedance rates of 15.00 % for nickel, 5.00 % for As, and 5.00 % for lead (Pb). The sources of six HMs identified by positive matrix factorization model included industrial activities (81.69 %) and natural/agricultural sources (18.31 %). Monte Carlo simulations assessment indicated no significant non-carcinogenic risks for adults, however, carcinogenic risk of As (CR) and TCR (sum of CR, CR, CR, and CR) at 90th percentile exceeded USEPA threshold (1 × 10) in Hubei (1.05 ×10, 1.11 ×10 and Fujian (1.24 ×10, 1.28 ×10). Accordingly, recommended intake limits for lotus root were established at 0.010 and 0.009 kg·d⁻¹ for Hubei and Fujian, respectively, which were lower than China's average daily consumption (approximately 0.014 kg·d). Therefore, the issue of HMs contamination in lotus root from major production areas needs attention, especially in Hubei and Fujian provinces, considering the potential CR mainly induced by As with long-term consumption.