Sources, temporal-spatial characteristics, exposure assessment and children health risk of phthalate esters (PAEs) in household dust in China from 2000 to 2023: a review and pool analysis.

Phthalate esters (PAEs) have been extensively used in the household environment globally for decades, posing persistent hazards. There is significant attention on the characteristics of PAEs in household dust (HD-PAEs) in China, driven by an increasing awareness of their endocrine-disruptor toxicity. In this study, 876 peer-reviewed papers published between 2000 and 2023 were evaluated and screened for raw numerical data of HD-PAEs in residential households, including 27 papers available for final analysis. The national mean concentration of ∑8HD-PAEs was approximately 1002 mg/kg based on calculation of the samples-weighted mean concentration. Pollution levels in several provinces, including Shaanxi, Liaoning, Chongqing, Heilongjiang, Hunan, and Beijing, exceeded the national average by 230 %, 209 %, 151 %, 84.6 %, 54.7 %, and 24.6 %, respectively. Spatial and temporal differences were observed in HD-PAEs pollution, with DEP, DMP and DCHP exhibiting higher concentrations in northern cities (P < 0.050), while DEP and DBP demonstrated higher concentrations in winter (P < 0.050). The two principal sources of HD-PAEs were identified through correlation analysis and principal component analysis: the use of plastic products and decoration materials (DEP, DEHP, DIBP and DMP accounted for 58.6 %), and personal care products (DBP accounted for 21.3 %). DEHP remains the predominant HD-PAEs, despite its concentration decreasing from 2005 to 2020. The carcinogenic risk of DEHP ranged from 2.45 × 10 to 2.45 × 10, and the non-carcinogenic risk of DEHP in Shaanxi (HI = 1.05), Chongqing (HI = 1.41), and Liaoning (HI = 1.41) exceeded the acceptable levels, with dermal contact and ingestion being the primary exposure routes. Based on these findings, we recommend prioritizing environmentally friendly building materials and minimizing the use of plastic products. Proper ventilation, especially during winter, and regular household cleaning and dust removal should be implemented to enhance environmental protection in homes. These measures can effectively reduce exposure to HD-PAEs and protect the health of residents.