Comparative study of the transcriptomes of Caco-2 cells cultured under dynamic static conditions following exposure to titanium dioxide and zinc oxide nanomaterials.

Due to the widespread application of food-relevant inorganic nanomaterials, the gastrointestinal tract is potentially exposed to these materials. Gut-on-chip systems are proposed for the investigation of compound toxicity as they better recapitulate the human intestinal environment than static models, due to the added shear stresses associated with the flow of the medium. We aimed to compare cellular responses of intestinal epithelial Caco-2 cells at the gene expression level upon TiO (E171) and ZnO (NM110) nanomaterial exposure when cultured under dynamic and conventionally applied static conditions. Whole-genome transcriptome analyses upon exposure of the cells to TiO and ZnO nanomaterials revealed differentially expressed genes and related biological processes that were culture condition specific. The total number of differentially expressed genes ( < 0.01) and affected pathways ( < 0.05 and FDR < 0.25) after nanomaterial exposure was higher under dynamic culture conditions than under static conditions for both nanomaterials. The observed increase in nanomaterial-induced responses in the gut-on-chip model indicates that shear stress might be a major factor in cell susceptibility. This is the first report on the application of a gut-on-chip system in which gene expression responses upon TiO and ZnO nanomaterial exposure are evaluated and compared to a static system. It extends current knowledge on nanomaterial toxicity assessment and the influence of a dynamic environment on cellular responses. Application of the gut-on-chip system resulted in higher sensitivity of the cells and might thus be an attractive system for use in the toxicological hazard characterization of nanomaterials.