Label-Free Multiphoton Imaging of Microbes in Root, Mineral, and Soil Matrices with Time-Gated Coherent Raman and Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging.

Imaging biogeochemical interactions in complex microbial systems─such as those at the soil-root interface─is crucial to studies of climate, agriculture, and environmental health but complicated by the three-dimensional (3D) juxtaposition of materials with a wide range of optical properties. We developed a label-free multiphoton nonlinear imaging approach to provide contrast and chemical information for soil microorganisms in roots and minerals with epi-illumination by simultaneously imaging two-photon excitation fluorescence (TPEF), coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS), second-harmonic generation (SHG), and sum-frequency mixing (SFM). We used fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM) and time gating to correct CARS for the autofluorescence background native to soil particles and fungal hyphae (TG-CARS) using time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC). We combined TPEF, TG-CARS, and FLIM to maximize image contrast for live fungi and bacteria in roots and soil matrices without fluorescence labeling. Using this instrument, we imaged symbiotic arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) structures within unstained plant roots in 3D to 60 μm depth. High-quality imaging was possible at up to 30 μm depth in a clay particle matrix and at 15 μm in complex soil preparation. TG-CARS allowed us to identify previously unknown lipid droplets in the symbiotic fungus, . We also visualized unstained putative bacteria associated with the roots of in a soil microcosm. Our results show that this multimodal approach holds significant promise for rhizosphere and soil science research.