Examining PM concentrations and exposure using multiple models.

Epidemiologic studies have found associations between fine particulate matter (PM) exposure and adverse health effects using exposure models that incorporate monitoring data and other relevant information. Here, we use nine PM concentration models (i.e., exposure models) that span a wide range of methods to investigate i) PM concentrations in 2011, ii) potential changes in PM concentrations between 2011 and 2028 due to on-the-books regulations, and iii) PM exposure for the U.S. population and four racial/ethnic groups. The exposure models included two geophysical chemical transport models (CTMs), two interpolation methods, a satellite-derived aerosol optical depth-based method, a Bayesian statistical regression model, and three data-rich machine learning methods. We focused on annual predictions that were regridded to 12-km resolution over the conterminous U.S., but also considered 1-km predictions in sensitivity analyses. The exposure models predicted broadly consistent PM concentrations, with relatively high concentrations on average over the eastern U.S. and greater variability in the western U.S. However, differences in national concentration distributions (median standard deviation: 1.00 μg m) and spatial distributions over urban areas were evident. Further exploration of these differences and their implications for specific applications would be valuable. PM concentrations were estimated to decrease by about 1 μg m on average due to modeled emission changes between 2011 and 2028, with decreases of more than 3 μg m in areas with relatively high 2011 concentrations that were projected to experience relatively large emission reductions. Agreement among models was closer for population-weighted than uniformly weighted averages across the domain. About 50% of the population was estimated to experience PM concentrations less than 10 μg m in 2011 and PM improvements of about 2 μg m due to modeled emission changes between 2011 and 2028. Two inequality metrics were used to characterize differences in exposure among the four racial/ethnic groups. The metrics generally yielded consistent information and suggest that the modeled emission reductions between 2011 and 2028 would reduce absolute exposure inequality on average.