Environmental concentration effects of imidacloprid on the renal system of Xenopus laevis: Multifaceted insights from histopathology to molecular biology.

Given the widespread presence of imidacloprid in aquatic environments and the limited research on its impact on amphibian renal health, in this study, we investigated the effects of this commonly used neonicotinoid insecticide on kidney function and molecular mechanisms in Xenopus laevis. Employing a 28-day exposure model, histopathological changes and enzymatic responses induced by two concentrations of imidacloprid were examined, along with gene expression alterations and metabolic disruptions at environmentally relevant levels. The results highlighted significant renal histopathological damage and changes in key enzymes involved in oxidative stress and neurotoxicity, such as superoxide dismutase, glutathione S-transferase, and acetylcholinesterase. Transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses elucidated profound alterations in gene expression and metabolic profiles, particularly affecting carbohydrate, amino acid, and purine metabolism pathways. This study demonstrates the dual role of metabolic adaptations-serving both protective functions and potentially leading to long-term detrimental effects under continuous exposure. These findings underscore the need for cautious management of neonicotinoid usage to mitigate environmental impacts on aquatic wildlife, particularly amphibians, and inform conservation strategies.