Exploiting nanoprobe X-ray techniques for imaging of biomineralisation; chemical, structural and opportunities.

Advances in X-ray nanoprobe beamlines at synchrotrons across the world present exciting opportunities for rich multimodal imaging of biomineral structures and their formation processes. The combination of techniques provides a sensitive probe of both chemistry and structure, making X-ray nanoprobes an important tool for investigating crystallite growth and orientations, interfaces, and assembly of building blocks into hierarchical structures. A discussion of these capabilities is presented with reference to recent examples using a range of nanoprobe imaging techniques for investigating enamel structure, as well as coccolith properties. Key opportunities for the use of X-ray nanoprobes lie in exploiting the penetrating power and coherence properties of synchrotron X-rays in order to image processes or apply coherent diffractive imaging techniques to obtain higher resolutions. To this end initial results demonstrating the observation of calcium phosphate mineralisation, in a liquid environment, using nano-X-ray fluorescence mapping are presented, and the role of X-ray dose and beam induced effects is considered. Finally novel results from tomographic ptychography imaging of mussel shell calcite prisms are discussed, where the segmentation of the phase density into organic and mineral content gives insights into the mechanisms underlying mineral prism formation and the role of the organic matrix in biomineralisation.