E-waste in the environment: Unveiling the sources, carcinogenic links, and sustainable management strategies.

E-waste refers to the electrical and electronic equipment discarded without the intent of reuse or at the end of its functional lifespan. In 2022, approximately 62 billion kg of e-waste, equivalent to 7.8 kg per capita, was generated globally. With an alarming annual growth of approximately 2 million metric tonnes, e-waste production may exceed 82 billion kg by 2030. Improper disposal of e-waste can be detrimental to human health and the entire biosphere. E-waste encompasses a wide range of materials, including heavy metals, Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS), Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), Polychlorinated Dibenzo-dioxins and -furans (PCDD/Fs), Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs), and radioactive elements. E-waste, when disposed inappropriately can directly contaminate the aquatic and terrestrial environment, leading to human exposure through ingestion, inhalation, dermal absorption, and trans-placental transfer. These detrimental contaminants can directly enter the human body from the environment and may fuel carcinogenesis by modulating cell cycle proteins, redox homeostasis, and mutations. Heavy metals such as cadmium, mercury, arsenic, lead, chromium, and nickel, along with organic pollutants like PAHs, PCBs, PBDEs, PFAS, and radioactive elements, play a crucial role in inducing malignancy. Effective collection, sorting, proper recycling, and appropriate disposal techniques are essential to reduce environmental contamination with e-waste-derived chemicals. Hence, this comprehensive review aims to unravel the global environmental burden of e-waste and its links to carcinogenesis in humans. Furthermore, it provides an inclusive discussion on potential treatment approaches to minimize environmental e-waste contamination.