Analytical strategies to measure gadolinium as a wastewater marker in surface and groundwater systems.

The increasing use of gadolinium (Gd)-based contrast agents in magnetic resonance imaging and the recalcitrant behavior of Gd during municipal wastewater treatment have led to increased concentrations of the tracer in aquatic environments. These anthropogenic Gd emissions to wastewater and, subsequently, to surface and groundwater systems can be exploited to calculate groundwater travel times and mixing ratios, identify wastewater inputs, and calibrate groundwater models. However, analytical complexity, costs, and the time needed to directly measure anthropogenic inputs hinder the practical use of Gd. While direct measurements with inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) are highly efficient and feasible, only total Gd can be detected with this approach. In unknown hydrogeological systems, the differentiation between total, anthropogenic, and geogenic Gd by interpolating rare earth element patterns requires complex sample pre-treatment and pre-concentration. Direct measurements of Gd can be obtained using anion-exchange chromatography coupled to ICP-MS but the limit of quantification will be higher. Here we provide guidelines for selecting the optimal method for the analysis of Gd as a wastewater tracer in surface-groundwater systems.•The cost-effectiveness of existing analytical strategies to measure Gd when used as a wastewater tracer in surface-groundwater systems is addressed•A novel analytical strategy for direct determination of total Gd is presented.