Maternal inflammation induces spatial learning and memory impairment in the F1 and F2 generations of mice via sex-specific epigenetic mechanisms.

Mounting evidence indicates that histone modifications are involved in aging-associated cognitive decline (AACD) and can be transmitted to offspring over multiple generations under conditions of stress. Here, we investigated the effects of maternal sub-chronic inflammation caused by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on AACD and histone modifications in the F1 and F2 generations of experimental mice as well as the potential sex specificity of intergenerational effects. In brief, F0-generation CD-1 dams were exposed to LPS (50 µg/kg) or saline (CON) during late pregnancy. Subsequently, F1 males and females (at 2 months-of-age) from the LPS treatment group were mated with non-littermates from the LPS group or wild-type mice to produce F2 generations of parental- (F2-LPS), paternal- (F2M-LPS) and maternal-origin (F2F-LPS) mice. Then, CON-F1 males and females were mated with wild-type mice to generate F2 generations of paternal- (F2M-CON) and maternal-origin (F2F-CON). Next, we evaluated the cognitive ability and levels of hippocampal H4K12ac and H3K9me3 in the F1 and F2 offspring at 3- and 13 months-of-age. Overall, F1 male and female LPS groups presented with elevated corticosterone (P < 0.001, P = 0.036, P = 0.025, 0.012, respectively) and cytokine responses, poorer cognitive performance (all P < 0.05) and H3K9 hypermethylation and H4K12 hypoacetylation in the dorsal hippocampus (all P < 0.05); these issues were carried over to the F2 generation via the parents, predominantly in the paternal lineage. Moreover, the levels of H3K9me3 and H4K12ac were significant correlated with cognitive performance (all P < 0.05), regardless of whether inflammatory insults had been incurred directly or indirectly. These findings indicated that gestational inflammatory insults in the F0 generation accelerated AACD in the F2 generation, along with H3K9 hypermethylation and H4K12 hypoacetylation in the hippocampus, and that these issues were derived from the F1 parents, especially from the F1 fathers.