Investigation into the Performance of TDR and FDR Techniques for Measuring the Water Content of Biochar-Amended Loess.

Biochar has garnered considerable attention for its potential to improve soil properties due to its unique characteristics. However, the precise measurement of soil water content using electromagnetic sensors becomes challenging after biochar is incorporated. This study investigated the impact of biochar on soil water content measurement by adding biochar of varying dosages and particle sizes to a typical loess, under both room and subzero temperature conditions by using time domain reflectometry (TDR) and frequency domain reflectometry (FDR) techniques. The results demonstrate that biochar amendment significantly influenced the measurement accuracy of both TDR and FDR. A clear dosage-dependent relationship was observed, with measurement errors exhibiting progressive escalation as biochar addition rates increased. At room temperature, the root mean square error (RMSE) values for loess were remarkably low (TDR: 0.029; FDR: 0.093). In contrast, the 9% coarse-grained biochar-amended soil (BAS-9%C) showed substantially elevated RMSE values (TDR: 0.2006; FDR: 0.1468). Furthermore, comparative analysis revealed that particle size significantly affected measurement precision, with coarse-grained biochar demonstrating more pronounced interference effects than fine-grained biochar at equivalent application rates. At subzero temperatures, BAS-6%C exhibited significantly higher RMSE values (TDR: 0.1753; FDR: 0.2022) compared to BAS-6%F (TDR: 0.079; FDR: 0.1872). A dielectric mixing model was established for calculating the dielectric constant of BAS. In addition, calibration equations for accurately determining the water content of biochar-amended loess under both room and subzero temperature conditions were established. Furthermore, the mechanisms by which biochar influenced the performance of the TDR and FDR sensors are comprehensively discussed. These findings can provide valuable theoretical foundation and practical guidance for future soil improvement with biochar and accurate water content measurement in BAS.