Unlocking the potential of red mud: Advanced strategies for economic optimization and sustainable recovery of critical minerals.

Red mud (RM) is a solid by-product generated in large quantities from the Bayer process in alumina refinery industries. The high pH and heavy metal content pose significant environmental challenges for its management and disposal. This comprehensive review highlights RM's potential as a source of valuable raw materials, focusing on both economic and environmental implications. Special attention is given to the recovery of critical minerals such as lithium, titanium, scandium, and rare earth elements (REEs) from RM. The review explores current market trends, recovery methods, and related technical and regulatory challenges. It also discusses the toxicity and environmental concerns of RM disposal, as well as its wide range of applications in the industrial sector. In particular, its use in construction materials such as cement, bricks, and geopolymers while also highlighting its potential in ceramic and catalyst manufacturing. Further, this study reflects economic factors, legal frameworks, and incentives for RM valorization, supported by case studies on its sustainable utilization. Additionally, it also covers health and safety aspects, lifecycle assessments, and future research to improve value added applications and reduce environmental risks. This review uniquely integrates the recovery of critical minerals with sustainable economic strategies, providing a comprehensive framework for the effective utilization of RM in the circular economy.