Interlacing biology and engineering: An introduction to textiles and their application in tissue engineering.

Tissue engineering (TE) aims to provide personalized solutions for tissue loss caused by trauma, tumors, or congenital defects. While traditional methods like autologous and homologous tissue transplants face challenges such as donor shortages and risk of donor site morbidity, TE provides a viable alternative using scaffolds, cells, and biologically active molecules. Textiles represent a promising scaffold option for both and TE applications. Textile engineering is a broad field and can be divided into fiber-based textiles and yarn-based textiles. In fiber-based textiles the textile fabric is produced in the same step as the fibers (e.g. non-wovens, electrospun mats and 3D-printed). For yarn-based textiles, yarns are produced from fibers or filaments first and then, a textile fabric is produced (e.g. woven, weft-knitted, warp-knitted and braided fabrics). The selection of textile scaffold technology depends on the target tissue, mechanical requirements, and fabrication methods, with each approach offering distinct advantages. Braided scaffolds, with their high tensile strength, are ideal for load-bearing tissues like tendons and ligaments, while their ability to form stable hollow lumens makes them suitable for vascular applications. Weaving, weft-, and warp-knitting provide tunable structural properties, with warp-knitting offering the greatest design flexibility. Spacer fabrics enable complex 3D architecture, benefiting applications such as skin grafts and multilayered tissues. Electrospinning, though highly effective in mimicking the ECM, is structurally limited. The complex interactions between materials, fiber properties, and textile technologies allows for scaffolds with a wide range of morphological and mechanical characteristics (e.g., tensile strength of woven textiles ranging from 0.64 to 180.4 N/mm). With in-depth knowledge, textiles can be tailored to obtain specific mechanical properties as accurately as possible and aid the formation of functional tissue. However, as textile structures inherently differ from biological tissues, careful optimization is required to enhance cell behavior, mechanical performance, and clinical applicability. This review is intended for TE experts interested in using textiles as scaffolds and provides a detailed analysis of the available options, their characteristics and known applications. For this, first the major fiber formation methods are introduced, then subsequent used automated textile technologies are presented, highlighting their strengths and limitations. Finally, we analyze how these textile and fiber structures are utilized in TE, organized by the use of textiles in TE across major organ systems, including the nervous, skin, cardiovascular, respiratory, urinary, digestive, and musculoskeletal systems.