Mixture and individual effects of benzene, toluene, and formaldehyde in zebrafish (Danio rerio) development: Metabolomics, epigenetics, and behavioral approaches.

In this study, we aimed to investigate the potential hazards of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) on the development of zebrafish. To this end, zebrafish embryos were exposed in two different windows, either alone or in a mixture with VOCs (benzene, toluene, and formaldehyde) [EW1: 4 ± 2 h post-fertilization (hpf) to 24 hpf and EW2: 24 ± 2 hpf to 48 hpf]. Alterations in global DNA methylation and related gene expression, behavioral responses, and stress-related gene expression were observed. In addition to these endpoints, non-targeted NMR-based global metabolomics followed by pathway analysis showed significant changes in the metabolism of various amino acids during VOC exposure. Regardless of the analyzed endpoints, toluene was the most toxic chemical when exposed individually and possibly played the most pivotal role in the mixture treatment conditions. In conclusion, our data show that exposure to VOCs at embryonic developmental stages causes physiological perturbations and adverse outcomes at later life stages.