Glutamine Metabolism: Molecular Regulation, Biological Functions, and Diseases.

Glutaminolysis, the metabolic process of converting glutamine into key intermediates, plays an essential role in cellular energy production, signaling, biosynthesis, and redox balance. Deregulation of glutamine metabolism significantly influences various pathological conditions, including cancers and metabolic and neurological diseases. Emerging evidence shows that long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), circular RNAs (circRNAs), and oncogenic alterations in glutamine transporters and enzymes enhance glutamine's role as an alternative energy source, supporting cell survival and proliferation under nutrient and oxygen deprivation conditions.

Extracellular vesicles as tools and targets in therapy for diseases.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nano-sized, membranous structures secreted into the extracellular space. They exhibit diverse sizes, contents, and surface markers and are ubiquitously released from cells under normal and pathological conditions. Human serum is a rich source of these EVs, though their isolation from serum proteins and non-EV lipid particles poses challenges.