Collateral damage of neonicotinoid insecticides: Unintended effects on gut microbiota of non-target organisms.

Neonicotinoids (NEOs) are widely used insecticides known for their effectiveness in pest control. However, concerns have emerged regarding their persistence in the environment and unintended effects on non-target organisms, particularly gut microbiota. The gut microbiota, essential for digestion, immunity, and metabolic health, can be disrupted by NEOs, leading to dysbiosis, immune dysfunction, metabolic disturbances, and increased susceptibility to infections. NEO exposure has been shown to reduce microbial diversity, particularly beneficial bacteria, in species like honeybees, rodents, and humans. This disruption can contribute to conditions such as inflammation, gastrointestinal disorders, and systemic diseases. This review compares the effects of various NEOs, including imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, and clothianidin, on gut microbiota across species. It highlights the detrimental impact on microbial communities, particularly in pollinators like bees, and extends to vertebrates and aquatic organisms. The disruption of gut microbiota can lead to severe ecological consequences, including impaired pollination, reduced plant health, and compromised ecosystem resilience. There is an urgent need for further research to understand the mechanisms behind NEO-induced microbiota disruption and to develop sustainable pest management alternatives. It advocates for stricter regulations, the development of biopesticides, and the use of probiotics to mitigate gut microbiota disruption. Addressing these issues through comprehensive studies and regulatory measures is crucial to protect non-target organisms, ecosystems, and public health from the unintended collateral damage of NEOs.