Subtypes and proliferation patterns of small intestine neuroendocrine tumors revealed by single-cell RNA sequencing.

Neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) occur primarily in the small intestine, lung, and pancreas. Due to their rarity compared to other malignancies in these organs, their complex biology remains poorly understood, including their oncogenesis, tumor composition, and the intriguing phenomena of mixed neuroendocrine non-neuroendocrine neoplasms (MiNEN). Here, we profiled ten low-grade small intestine NET (SiNET) samples as well as one mixed lung tumor by single-cell or single-nuclei RNA-seq. We find that SiNETs are largely separated into two distinct subtypes, in which the neuroendocrine cells upregulate epithelial or neuronal markers, respectively. Surprisingly, in both subtypes, the neuroendocrine cells are largely non-proliferative while higher proliferation is observed in multiple non-malignant cell types. Specifically, B and plasma cells are highly proliferative in the epithelial-like SiNET subtype, potentially reflecting the outcome of high Migration Inhibitory Factor (MIF) expression in those tumors, which may constitute a relevant target. Finally, our analysis of a mixed lung neuroendocrine tumor identifies a population of putative progenitor cells that may give rise to both neuroendocrine and non-neuroendocrine (squamous) cells, potentially explaining the origin of the mixed histology. Taken together, our results provide important insights and hypotheses regarding the biology of neuroendocrine neoplasms.