antibiotic resistance: a global challenge in search of solutions.

Background: resistance to antibiotics commonly used in eradication regimens is increasing dramatically in many locations; new strategies are needed to manage this infectious disease.

Objective: This study's aim was to collect and update information on antibiotic resistance (AR) rates in as well as current strategies for management, including public health issues, from a global perspective.

Design: An international survey was conducted in 31 countries on 6 continents to address key issues concerning the management of -related AR. Individual aspects included the prevalence of AR for specific antibiotics, antibiotic susceptibility testing (AST) in different healthcare systems, availability of drugs, reimbursement issues and strategies for AR surveillance.

Results: Resistance to the most effective antibiotics used in eradication regimens is increasing globally, with clarithromycin and levofloxacin resistance exceeding 15% in 24/31 and 18/31 countries, respectively. Amoxicillin remains an exception, with resistance rates under 2% in 14/31 countries; though African countries have reported amoxicillin resistance rates of over 90%. Bismuth-based treatment regimens are the most effective and are recommended as first-line treatment in several countries. However, more than 1 billion inhabitants worldwide have no access to bismuth-based regimens. PCR-based tests for AR are used in 16/26 countries but are reimbursed in only 4, while next generation sequencing-based tests are available, but not reimbursed, in 3 countries. In 22/26 countries only culture-based methods are available (reimbursed in 9/26 countries). AR surveillance programmes have only been established in 4/26 countries. Therefore, in most countries, empirical therapy with the most effective local regimen available locally is practiced.

Conclusion: The dramatic global rise in antibiotic resistance requires an urgent revision of current management strategies. Possible solutions include AST-based selection of effective treatment regimens, identification of novel combinations of existing drugs and exploration of novel drugs.