Genome-wide identification, comparative analysis, and expression profiling of stress-associated protein (SAP) gene family in under abiotic stress.

Unlabelled: A genome-wide analysis identified 12 stress-associated protein (SAP) genes in . Phylogenetic analysis classified these genes into three clades, each with conserved zinc finger domains (ZF-A20/AN1) crucial for stress responses. Gene duplication analysis revealed two segmental and three tandem duplications under purifying selection, indicating evolutionary pressure. Phylogenetic and synteny analyses showed conservation among monocots and divergence from dicots. Promoter analysis identified -regulatory elements linked to abiotic stress, hormone signaling, and growth regulation, while five genes were targeted by stress-responsive miRNAs. Transcriptome and qRT-PCR analyses demonstrated tissue-specific, developmental, and stress-specific expressions, with most genes significantly up-regulated under cold and salinity stress, but minimally expressed under heat and drought stress, suggesting distinct regulatory mechanisms. Conserved genes, including , , , , and , were identified as potential key candidates for further functional analysis for stress tolerance. These findings highlight the critical roles of genes in abiotic stress adaptation, offering insights into developing stress-resilient and related crops.

Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-025-04424-0.