Alginate Sphere-Based Soft Actuators.

Alginate hydrogels offer distinct advantages as ionically crosslinked, biocompatible networks that can be shaped into spherical beads with high compositional flexibility. These spherical architectures provide isotropic geometry, modularity and the capacity for encapsulation, making them ideal platforms for scalable, stimuli-responsive actuation. Their ability to respond to thermal, magnetic, electrical, optical and chemical stimuli has enabled applications in targeted delivery, artificial muscles, microrobotics and environmental interfaces. This review examines recent advances in alginate sphere-based actuators, focusing on fabrication methods such as droplet microfluidics, coaxial flow and functional surface patterning, and strategies for introducing multi-stimuli responsiveness using smart polymers, nanoparticles and biologically active components. Actuation behaviours are understood and correlated with physical mechanisms including swelling kinetics, photothermal effects and the field-induced torque, supported by analytical and multiphysics models. Their demonstrated functionalities include shape transformation, locomotion and mechano-optical feedback. The review concludes with an outlook on the existing limitations, such as the material stability, cyclic durability and integration complexity, and proposes future directions toward the development of autonomous, multifunctional soft systems.