Effects of Ag and melt undercooling on the microstructure of Sn-Ag solder balls.

Unlabelled: The microstructure of electronic solder joints is created by solidification in an undercooled melt. Here, we apply the framework of solidification microstructure selection maps (SMSMs) to Sn-Ag solder balls with compositions from 0.5 to 5.0 wt.% Ag and bulk undercoolings in the range 10-70 K. The effects of Ag and melt undercooling on the transition from single-grain to cyclic-twinned microstructures and the extent of interlacing are revealed. Controlled by the Ag content and the competitive nucleation between the β-Sn and AgSn phases, a competition between tin dendrite and eutectic growth is observed that decides the microstructure of solder balls. The solidification microstructure selection map, modified to account for whether AgSn or β-Sn nucleate first in competitive nucleation, is in reasonable agreement with coupled zone theory. The map provides a guide for tailoring desired solder microstructures for mechanical performance through controlling the nucleation undercooling of β-Sn and AgSn during solidification.

Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10854-025-14979-6.