The dynamic patterns of critical ecological areas in the Yellow River Basin are driven primarily by climate factors but threatened by human activities.

While the identification of critical ecological areas (CEAs) has been limited by the availability of resources, funds, and land space, these areas are central for maintaining the contributions from nature and ecosystem biodiversity. Thus, in this study, CEAs were systematically identified and classified via long-term ecosystem assessment with a multifunctionality-stability-integrity framework in the Yellow River Basin (YRB). The intensity and pathways of the driving factors of CEA dynamics were also determined by the geographical detector model (GDM) and the partial least squares structural equation model (PLS-SEM). The results revealed a gradual decrease in the proportion of CEAs in the upper and lower reaches from 2005 to 2020, in contrast with a significant increase in the middle reaches. The CEAs were distributed mainly in the Sanjiangyuan and Ziwuling regions and the Qingling, Qilian, Lvliang and Taihang Mountains. The areas with low, medium, and high levels of CEAs accounted for 12.48%, 17.73% and 12.54%, respectively, of the YRB. Moreover, climate factors, especially precipitation, were the foremost drivers influencing the dynamic patterns of CEAs. However, notably, the CEAs in the YRB experienced continuous degradation from 2005 to 2020 due to intensified human activities. Our results confirmed the important role of climate factors in determining the distribution of CEAs while underscoring the necessity of mitigating human disturbances to maintain ecosystem functions. These investigations of the dynamics and drivers of CEAs based on long-term multi-dimensional ecosystem assessments could provide useful insights for developing ecological conservation and sustainable development strategies.