Epigenetic transgenerational effects of PM2.5 collected from southern Taiwan on sperm functions and DNA methylation in mouse offspring.

During respiration, particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 µm or less (PM) suspended in the atmosphere enters the terminal alveoli and blood. PM particles can attach to toxic substances, resulting in health problems. Limited information is available regarding the effects of prenatal exposure to water-soluble PM (WS-PM) and water-insoluble PM (WI-PM) on male reproduction. In addition, whether exposure to these particles has transgenerational effects remains unknown. We investigated whether prenatal exposure to WS-PM and WI-PM disrupts sperm function in generations F1, F2, and F3 of male mice. Pregnant BALB/c mice were treated using intratracheal instillation on gestation days 7, 11, and 15 with 10 mg of a water extract or insoluble PM. On postnatal day 105, epididymal sperm count, motility, morphology, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, the sperm chromatin DNA fragmentation index (DFI), and testicular DNA methyltransferase (Dnmt) levels were evaluated in all generations. Whole-genome bisulfite sequencing was used to analyze the DNA methylation status of generation F3. According to the results, exposure to WS-PM affected sperm morphology, ROS production, and mean DFI in generation F1; ROS production and mean DFI in generation F2; and sperm morphology and MMP in generation F3. Similarly, exposure to WI-PM affected sperm morphology, ROS production, mean DFI, %DFI, and Dnmt1 expression in generation F1; sperm morphology, MMP, and ROS production in generation F2; and sperm morphology, ROS, and %DFI in generation F3. Two hypermethylated genes, PRR16 and TJP2, were observed in the WS-PM and WI-PM groups, two hypomethylated genes, NFATC1 and APOA5, were observed in the WS-PM group, and two hypomethylated genes, ZFP945 and GSE1, were observed in the WI-PM group. Hence, prenatal exposure to PM resulted in transgenerational epigenetic effects, which may explain certain phenotypic changes in male reproduction.