Head to head: the case for fighting behaviour in using finite-element analysis.

The largest antlers of any known deer species belonged to the extinct giant deer . It has been argued that their antlers were too large for use in fighting, instead being used only in ritualized displays to attract mates. Here, we used finite-element analysis to test whether the antlers of could have withstood forces generated during fighting. We compared the mechanical performance of antlers in with three extant deer species: red deer (), fallow deer () and elk (). Von Mises stress results suggest that was capable of withstanding some fighting loads, provided that their antlers interlocked proximally, and that their antlers were best adapted for withstanding loads from twisting rather than pushing actions, as are other deer with palmate antlers. We conclude that fighting in was probably more constrained and predictable than in extant deer.