Blood and urine-based biomarkers in prostate cancer: Current advances, clinical applications, and future directions.

Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the most prevalent malignancies in men, characterized by high clinical and molecular heterogeneity. Despite the widespread use of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) for diagnosis and monitoring, its limited specificity and sensitivity necessitate the development of more accurate biomarkers. This review provides a comprehensive overview of current and emerging diagnostic, prognostic, and predictive biomarkers in PCa, highlighting their clinical applications and future perspectives.